Abstract
This study, focusing on Sadegh Hedayat’s “Three Drops of Blood,” examines the representation of traumatic experience and the psychological mechanisms that organize it at the level of narrative structure. The central research question is how traumatic experience is configured through patterns of repetition, temporal disruption, perceptual instability, and interpersonal relations within the text. The study is qualitative in nature and is based on interpretive textual analysis, with its theoretical framework grounded in Cathy Caruth’s perspective. The dataset consists of the full text of the story, and the analysis is conducted at an intratextual level. The findings reveal three main themes: the logic of repetition at the level of narrative signs and actions; perceptual instability manifested in the ambiguity between reality and imagination, discontinuity of memory, and fluidity of identity; and recurring patterns in emotional and interpersonal relationships. These themes interact to form a narrative structure in which experience is not organized as a linear sequence of events, but rather through recurrent returns, temporal ruptures, and the reproduction of perceptual and relational patterns. So trauma is not merely represented as the content of a psychological experience, but operates at the level of narrative structure itself, shaping the organization of time, memory, perception, and relationships. From this perspective, the story presents an experience in which memory fragmentation, perceptual instability, and the repetition of affective patterns undermine experiential coherence. This study highlights the capacity of psychological approaches to illuminate modern Persian narratives and to clarify the relationship between narrative structure and traumatic experience.

Introduction
Betrayal in intimate relationships represents one of the most severe forms of interpersonal trust violation, with consequences extending far beyond short-term emotional reactions and potentially leading to fundamental reorganization in cognitive, emotional, and identity structures (Pittman, 2025). In contemporary relationship psychology literature, betrayal is not merely conceptualized as an isolated behavior but as a form of "rupture in the shared meaning system of the relationship" and the collapse of the couple's joint narrative of past, present, and future (Squires, 2014; Fishbane, 2013). This rupture can generate traumatic conditions that disrupt the coherence of lived experience. From the perspective of cultural psychology, betrayal cannot be analyzed solely at the individual level, as its meaning and intensity are shaped within cultural systems and social norms. Each culture provides cognitive frameworks through which concepts such as loyalty, honor, and gender identity operate, thereby influencing how betrayal is experienced (Fincham & May, 2017; Khazaie et al., 2023). Within this framework, betrayal is not merely an event but a form of "disruption in the cultural order of meaning" that can lead to identity crisis and the collapse of an individual's meaning-making system (Sinaga & Damanik, 2025).
In contemporary trauma studies, trauma is understood not simply as a damaging experience but as a disruption in the processing and integration of experience across time and memory, manifesting through sudden returns, narrative ruptures, and perceptual instability (Caruth, 1996; Uzer et al., 2023). From a cultural psychological perspective, the manner in which trauma is experienced and expressed is strongly influenced by cultural meaning structures and patterns of social narrative construction. Narrative, from this viewpoint, is not merely a reflection of experience but one of the primary mechanisms for organizing human experience (McAdams, 2021; Hammack, 2008). In modern Persian literature, Sadeq Hedayat's works—due to their non-linear narrative structures, perceptual multiplicity, and focus on unstable subjectivities—offer rich possibilities for analysis within the frameworks of cultural psychology and trauma studies (Baraheni, 1992). However, existing research on Hedayat's works has predominantly focused on aesthetic or ideological aspects, with less attention to the underlying psychological-cultural mechanisms, particularly regarding the representation of emotional relationships and betrayal. This gap has resulted in conflicting interpretations, with some studies emphasizing cynical or clichéd dimensions while others situate these representations within narrative modernism, narrator positionality, and historical-cultural context (Milani, 1992).
"Three Drops of Blood" represents a distinctive example in which human experience is represented through a fragmented, repetitive, and perceptually unstable structure. In this text, narrative is organized not through linear sequences of events but through recurrent returns, repetitive signs, and disruptions in the boundaries of perception, memory, and identity (Hedayat, 1954; Mohaghegh, 2003). These characteristics enable analysis within trauma and cultural psychology frameworks. In this study, trauma—drawing on Caruth's perspective—is understood as a disruption in the temporal integration of experience, manifesting through narrative returns, delayed comprehension, and perceptual discontinuity (Caruth, 1996; Herman, 1997; Pederson, 2018). However, this concept is not applied clinically or individually but as a cultural-cognitive mechanism for understanding how experience is organized in literary texts. The central research question is how betrayal—in conjunction with cultural meaning structures and cognitive mechanisms—is represented through specific narrative organization in "Three Drops of Blood." This study aims to demonstrate how the convergence of interpersonal trust collapse and cultural-cognitive ruptures leads to the formation of patterns of repetition, perceptual ambiguity, and narrative discontinuity in the text.

Research Methodology
This qualitative study employs deductive thematic analysis with an interpretive approach (Braun & Clarke, 2006). The selection of this method was based on the premise that the research question concerns not the measurement of psychological variables at an empirical level but the analysis of how experience is organized in literary texts and the identification of meaning patterns related to trauma, cognitive rupture, and cultural representation of betrayal. The analytical strategy is deductive, meaning the process of data extraction and organization was guided by a pre-established theoretical framework. The primary conceptual framework draws on Cathy Caruth's trauma studies approach, emphasizing concepts such as delayed experience, sudden return, temporal rupture, and perceptual discontinuity. Additionally, concepts from cultural psychology, cognitive rupture, and defensive mechanisms were employed as secondary interpretative frameworks. However, these concepts were used not as clinical diagnostic tools but as conceptual lenses for understanding narrative structure and the organization of experience in the text.
The dataset comprises the complete text of Hedayat's "Three Drops of Blood," analyzed as a coherent and independent unit. The analysis followed four stages: first, multiple comprehensive readings to achieve deep familiarity with narrative structure and identify recurring patterns; second, initial coding of text segments related to theoretical concepts such as repetition, temporal rupture, reality/imagination ambiguity, memory discontinuity, relational similarity, identity instability, and signs of trust collapse; third, organizing initial codes into thematic categories based on conceptual relationships, resulting in three main themes—"the logic of repetition," "perceptual instability," and "recurring relational patterns"; and fourth, examining relationships among themes at the macro-narrative level to explain the logic of non-linear coherence and experience reproduction. To enhance credibility, the analysis was iterative between textual data, codes, and theoretical framework, with all conclusions revisited through repeated reference to textual evidence. The analytical decision-making process was documented to ensure interpretive transparency. Direct quotations with page references are provided for each theme to enable reader evaluation. However, the epistemological limitations of interpretive research are acknowledged, and alternative readings from psychoanalytic, semiotic, or narratological perspectives remain possible. The study's focus on a single text through intratextual analysis limits generalization beyond this specific work.

Discussion
The Logic of Repetition: Narrative Signs and Actions
Analysis revealed that repetition in "Three Drops of Blood" functions not as a stylistic ornament but as the primary organizing mechanism of the narrative. The repeated return of signs such as "three drops of blood," "pine tree," "blue room," and "cat" creates a cyclical structure in which the narrative remains in a state of continuous return rather than linear progression. The pine tree, for instance, appears in the opening scene alongside a series of associated images: the tree, the empty cage, the cat, and the act of killing. In deductive coding, this juxtaposition was classified under "cluster of threat and violence signs." The analytical significance lies in that blood is no longer an isolated image but becomes a focal point for signs of death, damage, and threat, while the narrative still refrains from providing a clear causal chain. When the three drops of blood reappear in the scene involving Siavash, the return appears tied to external observation, yet the narrative still does not establish its origin, cause, or consequence. Thus, the three drops of blood neither lead to narrative resolution nor reduce ambiguity but return the reader to the same initial state. In deductive analysis, this pattern was classified under "return without narrative resolution"—a pattern conceptually overlapping with the logic of return in incomplete, traumatic experiences as described by Caruth (1996).
Repetition also operates at the level of space and personality. The similarity between Siavash's room and the narrator's room demonstrates how spaces lose their independent identity and function as reflections of one another, weakening the boundaries between characters' experiences. The room is described as "blue, with a wall as high as the waist painted blue," a description nearly identical to that of the narrator's room (Hedayat, 1954: 16). Similarly, characters such as Siavash, Abbas, and to some extent the narrator share characteristics including poetry, music, introversion, and emotional sensitivity. This pattern of overlapping identities undermines the distinctiveness of individual characters, creating a narrative quality in which positions and relationships are reproduced through similar patterns. From the perspective of traumatic memory research, such repetition without resolution indicates an experience that has not been integrated into a coherent temporal sequence.
Perceptual Instability: Reality, Memory, and Identity
Perceptual instability manifests through three interrelated sub-themes: ambiguity between reality and imagination, memory discontinuity, and identity fluidity. Regarding the ambiguity between reality and imagination, the narrative from the outset presents the surrounding world not through objective description but through an agitated and disturbed subjectivity. The narrator describes sounds in exaggerated, threatening terms beyond ordinary stimuli, without clarifying to what extent these sounds are objective or products of subjective experience. This suspension prevents the reader from drawing clear boundaries between "the real" and "the perceived." This perceptual pattern recurs in the representation of the sanatorium space, where the narrator attempts to establish clear boundaries between self and others while simultaneously acknowledging that the outside world has deeply penetrated his psychological experience.
The second sub-theme concerns memory discontinuity and temporal rupture. Events, memories, and mental images appear as scattered fragments and sudden associations, with the narrative avoiding a clear, reconstructible timeline. Shifts between present, past memories, and narrative of prior events occur without clear temporal markers. The narrator moves between describing his current situation and recalling events related to Siavash, his fiancée, or garden scenes, then returns to the present without establishing clear temporal boundaries. Certain images and signs—pine tree, blue room, cat, three drops of blood—repeatedly return in different narrative positions. Despite their repetition, the narrative does not establish clear temporal or causal relationships among their various appearances. Memories related to Siavash, Abbas, and other characters are often narrated as disconnected fragments, with temporal connections remaining unclear. Thus, memory functions more through association and sign recurrence than linear reconstruction.
The third sub-theme concerns identity fluidity and the blurring of individual boundaries. Characteristics, roles, and behavioral patterns are distributed across multiple characters, such that in certain narrative sections, identity distinctions become ambiguous. Features like poetry, music, introversion, and emotional sensitivity recur among characters including the narrator, Siavash, and Abbas. These similarities weaken individual boundaries and create a degree of overlap in identity representation. Some spaces and narrative positions are similarly attributed to different characters. The resemblance between descriptions of the narrator's room and Siavash's room, or similarities in characters' emotional positions, creates overlap in identity representation. Consequently, characters sometimes appear not as wholly independent units but in reflective relation to one another. In sections where the narrator speaks about Siavash or Abbas, behavioral and emotional similarities are emphasized over differences. The analysis indicates that identity boundaries lack complete stability, with certain features circulating among different characters, presenting identity as fluid rather than fixed.
Recurring Patterns in Emotional and Interpersonal Relationships
Analysis of relational patterns revealed three sub-themes: ambivalent representation of emotional relationships, repetition of competition and displacement patterns, and relationships based on distance and misunderstanding. Regarding ambivalence, relationships are characterized by simultaneous attraction and repulsion, interest and rejection. The narrator describes Taqi, who believes women cause misfortune and should be killed, yet is in love with Sogra Soltan—an elderly woman who applies plaster to her face and considers herself a fourteen-year-old girl (Hedayat, 1954: 12-13). This juxtaposition creates a relational pattern where emotional interest coexists with repulsion or hostility, representing relationships not through stability and closeness but within a context of tension and incongruity.
The second sub-theme involves situations where expectations or perceptions of relationship are formed but then redirected toward another person. In one scene, the narrator describes a girl who seemed to like him: "That girl smiled at me, it was clear she loved me, she had come for me..." (Hedayat, 1954: 14). Immediately, the narrative shifts: "I saw Abbas pull the young girl aside and kiss her" (Hedayat, 1954: 14). A similar structure appears in the relationship involving the narrator, his fiancée, and Siavash. In both situations, the presence of a third figure redirects the relationship and disrupts initial expectations.
The third sub-theme concerns how relationships form among characters. Despite characters being together, proximity does not lead to stable connection or mutual understanding. The narrator repeatedly emphasizes his distance from others, describing the surrounding world from a detached position. In emotional and friendly relationships, characters' perceptions of one another are often accompanied by ambiguity, misunderstanding, or uncertainty. The analysis indicates that the text presents ambivalent relational representation, recurrence of competitive situations with displacement, and predominant distance and misunderstanding. This results in emotional experiences being reproduced through similar patterns rather than evolving toward differentiation. In cultural psychology terms, this pattern can be understood through concepts of honor, shame, and gender roles, where male identity is often organized around control, possession, and the avoidance of emotional vulnerability.

Conclusion
This analysis of "Three Drops of Blood" reveals that the narrative organization operates through three interconnected mechanisms: systematic repetition of narrative elements, perceptual instability across multiple experiential levels, and the formation of recurring patterns in interpersonal relationships. Crucially, these mechanisms do not function separately but form an intertwined network where each level reinforces and reproduces the others. The study demonstrates that repetition functions as the primary mechanism of narrative coherence—not decorative or stylistic, but the central organizing principle. The continued return of signs, spaces, and personal patterns without resolution creates a cyclical structure that prevents linear progression and keeps experience in a state of suspension. This pattern aligns with trauma research showing that unprocessed experiences often appear through involuntary repetitions and fragmented returns.
Perceptually, the text continuously undermines boundaries between reality, imagination, and memory, with narrated experience remaining perpetually in suspension such that definitive distinction between what occurred and what was perceived becomes impossible. This condition aligns with research identifying temporal and perceptual coherence disruption as characteristic of traumatic experiences. Memory functions not as a linear reconstruction but as scattered fragments activated at different moments, weakening temporal coherence. This instability extends to identity, where behavioral patterns and emotional elements circulate among characters, blurring individual boundaries. In relational terms, interactions organize around limited but recurring patterns: emotional ambivalence, desire displacement, perceived competition, and repeated experiences of failure. Rather than evolving toward differentiation, relationships are reproduced in similar structures.
The significance of these findings lies in demonstrating that the text is not merely a representation of psychological disturbance but an example of a specific organizing logic in which human experience is constructed and reconstructed through cycles of repetition and discontinuity. This conclusion enables rethinking the relationship among narrative, memory, and the organization of experience in modern literature, demonstrating that trauma in this text operates at the level of "how something is narrated" rather than solely "what is narrated." The boundaries among experience, memory, and narrative become highly fluid, with experience simultaneously being shaped in the process of narration. This observation aligns with approaches that understand narrative not as representation but as the mechanism through which experience is formed at the level of consciousness. However, the study's findings are limited to analysis of a single text and should not be generalized to all literary or narrative works. The use of a specific theoretical framework does not preclude alternative readings but offers one possible pathway for analyzing this narrative structure.