Abstract
Ethnic language is a core component of cultural identity and plays a vital role in shaping self-esteem and psychological well-being in multilingual societies. This study aimed to develop and psychometrically validate the Ethnolinguistic Identity Scale (ELIS) and examine its relationship with self-esteem among Iranian university students. A descriptive cross-sectional design was employed, with 690 students recruited through online convenience sampling. Data were collected using the newly developed 25-item Ethnolinguistic Identity Scale and a standardized measure of self-esteem. Exploratory factor analysis identified five dimensions—ethnolinguistic knowledge, ethnolinguistic belonging, ethnolinguistic self-esteem, ethnolinguistic language use, and ethnolinguistic language maintenance and transmission—which together accounted for approximately 79/86% of the total variance. Confirmatory factor analysis supported a good model fit. Reliability was established through Cronbach’s alpha (0.91), composite reliability (0.95), and test–retest reliability (0.76). Furthermore, concurrent validity was supported by a significant positive correlation with self-esteem, while known-groups validity was demonstrated by the scale’s ability to differentiate between varying levels of ethnic language use. Overall, the findings indicate that the Ethnolinguistic Identity Scale is a multidimensional instrument with robust psychometric properties, suitable for application in psychological and cultural research and interventions. Additionally, ethnolinguistic identity is associated with higher levels of self-esteem among students in multilingual societies and may help explain individual differences in self-esteem.

Introduction
Language, far beyond being a mere tool for message transmission, represents one of the most fundamental cultural and social symbols that carries meaning, values, history, and collective identity within a group (Kumar, 2024). For many communities, ethnic and local language is not simply a means of communication but an essential component of "cultural identity" and the primary factor in maintaining social belonging and cohesion (Trisnawati, 2017). The preservation and transmission of ethnic language play a vital role in strengthening cultural identity, social cohesion, and sense of belonging. Conversely, the weakening or reduction of its function can lead to identity rupture and psychological harm, affecting an individual's perception of connection and belonging to their community (Myronova et al., 2022). Giles and Johnson (1987) define ethnolinguistic identity as the process through which an ethnic group is defined by its language, emphasizing that language serves not only a communicative function but also symbolizes culture, values, and individual-collective identity. This conceptualization continues to be validated in contemporary research, with recent studies highlighting language as a core element of belonging, identity coherence, and cultural continuity (Danilov, 2025).
The concept of ethnolinguistic identity holds particular relevance in multilingual and university environments, where students are at a critical stage of identity transition, constantly interacting with the dominant academic language and culture. In such settings, students often experience conflict between the dominant university language and their ethnic language. Under these conditions, ethnolinguistic identity can serve as a significant protective factor against intra-cultural pressures, identity conflicts, cultural dissonance, and even linguistic discrimination (Trifonova, 2021). Research has demonstrated that higher levels of ethnic/cultural identity play a protective role in students' psychological well-being, associating with better psychological adjustment and self-esteem, particularly when group identity is perceived as stable and positive (Iwamoto & Liu, 2010). When individuals recognize membership in a language group and consider ethnic language inseparable from their personal identity, this sense of belonging can function as a source of psychological stability, social support, resilience, and identity security. Conversely, neglect or weakening of this identity dimension may be accompanied by anxiety, isolation, identity confusion, diminished self-esteem, and psychological vulnerability (Balidemaj & Small, 2019; Alshehri, 2023; Li & Tsai, 2025).
Iran's extensive ethnic and linguistic diversity, described as the "multi-ethnic mosaic of Iran" (Majbouri & Fesharaki, 2019), demonstrates that ethnic and linguistic identity constitutes a fundamental component of the country's social structure. This cultural diversity underscores the importance of developing standardized instruments for accurately measuring ethnolinguistic identity. However, despite this diversity, no comprehensive and locally validated instrument exists for measuring ethnolinguistic identity. Most existing scales focus on general ethnic identity or official language, failing to adequately capture the emotional, symbolic, identity-related, and functional dimensions of ethnic language that are essential for understanding identity bonds and psychological outcomes. Existing instruments such as the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM; Phinney & Ong, 2007), despite their widespread validity and application, do not explicitly address the linguistic dimension of identity. This gap is particularly significant in multilingual contexts where language serves as the primary marker of ethnic identity. The present study aims to address this gap by developing and validating a culturally appropriate Ethnolinguistic Identity Scale (ELIS) for the Iranian student population and examining its relationship with self-esteem.

Research Methodology
This descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted on 690 university students recruited through online convenience sampling. Participants were selected through internet-based invitations via social media platforms including Telegram, WhatsApp, Eitaa, Royika, and Instagram, targeting student groups and channels. Inclusion criteria included being a student, Iranian citizenship and residence in Iran, internet access, ability to respond, and informed consent. Exclusion criteria included incomplete questionnaires, illogical responses, duplicate participation, and missing entry criteria.
The research employed the newly developed Ethnolinguistic Identity Scale (EIS) and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES; Rosenberg, 1979). Instrument development followed Boateng et al.'s (2018) guidelines for developing psychological measurement tools. Initial items were generated through deductive and inductive approaches. In the deductive approach, systematic review of theoretical foundations, previous research, and existing instruments informed item generation. In the inductive approach, interviews and expert consultation enriched content from experiential and practical perspectives. Initially, 35 items were developed, followed by face validity assessment with 10 students and content validity evaluation by 8 experts in sociology, psychology, and psychometrics. Ten items were removed based on feedback. Content Validity Ratio (CVR≥0.78) and Content Validity Index (CVI≥0.75) confirmed content adequacy.
Data were analyzed using SPSS-24 and AMOS-24 through exploratory factor analysis (EFA) with principal component analysis and Promax rotation, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), reliability assessment (Cronbach's alpha, composite reliability, test-retest), and validity evaluation (convergent, divergent, concurrent, and known-groups validity). Ethical approval was obtained, with confidentiality, voluntary participation, and anonymity maintained throughout.

Discussion
Factor Structure of the Ethnolinguistic Identity Scale
Exploratory factor analysis revealed a five-factor structure for the Ethnolinguistic Identity Scale, explaining 79.86% of the total variance. The KMO measure (0.92) and Bartlett's test (χ²=5296.467, df=190, P<0.001) confirmed sampling adequacy. The five factors—ethnolinguistic knowledge, ethnolinguistic belonging, ethnolinguistic self-esteem, ethnolinguistic language use, and ethnolinguistic maintenance and transmission—demonstrated strong factor loadings (above 0.70) and communalities (0.75-0.84). This multidimensional structure aligns with contemporary perspectives in cultural and linguistic identity studies that conceptualize identity as dynamic, social, and multi-layered rather than static (Hall, 1993; Phinney & Ong, 2007). Confirmatory factor analysis supported the hierarchical model with excellent fit indices (CFI=0.99, TLI=0.99, RMSEA=0.03, χ²/df=0.85), confirming the theoretical structure.
Ethnolinguistic Knowledge represents the cognitive dimension, encompassing awareness of the history, background, characteristics, and distinctions of one's ethnic language. This dimension's significant positive correlation with self-esteem (r=0.59) aligns with findings from Wantchekon et al. (2023), Urzúa et al. (2021), and Ghosh and Mohan (2020), who demonstrated that knowledge and awareness of ethnic language forms the foundation for belonging and identity differentiation. From the perspective of self-determination theory (Ryan, 2023), knowledge of ethnic language can satisfy the need for competence and belonging, thereby enhancing self-esteem and psychological well-being. Hall's (1993) theory of identity suggests that identity is reproduced through narratives and historical knowledge, with language serving as the anchor for these narratives. Cognitive awareness of ethnic language helps individuals position themselves within historical and cultural continuity, reinforcing identity coherence and psychological stability.
Ethnolinguistic Belonging captures the affective dimension, representing emotional connection, rootedness, and attachment to ethnic language and group. The significant correlation between this dimension and self-esteem (r=0.53) is consistent with Schiro et al. (2021) and Park et al. (2024), who found that ethnolinguistic belonging plays a central role in self-esteem. This finding aligns with self-determination theory, as belonging represents a fundamental psychological need (Ryan, 2023). When this need is satisfied through ethnic language, individuals experience greater acceptance, security, and self-worth. Previous research has consistently demonstrated that cultural and linguistic belonging is associated with positive psychological outcomes (Oh & Fuligni, 2010). The belonging dimension reflects the emotional significance of language as a vehicle for identity expression and community connection, which is particularly salient in multilingual contexts where language serves as a primary marker of group membership.
Ethnolinguistic Self-Esteem emerged as an independent dimension, representing the experience of ethnic language as a source of pride, competence, and personal value. This dimension's strong correlation with self-esteem (r=0.56) aligns with collective self-esteem theory (Crocker & Luhtanen, 1990), which posits that positive valuation of one's ethnic-linguistic group enhances individual self-worth. When ethnic language is internalized as a valuable part of self, individuals extend this value to their personal identity, strengthening self-esteem. This finding is also explicable through Bourdieu's (1986) cultural capital theory, where ethnic language, when perceived as valuable capital, can elevate symbolic status and enhance feelings of competence and psychological power. Consistent with research by Ghosh and Mohan (2020), Li and Tsai (2025), Alshehri (2023), and Balidemaj and Small (2019), ethnolinguistic self-esteem directly relates to self-esteem through the positive appraisal of one's linguistic heritage.
Ethnolinguistic Language Use represents the behavioral dimension, reflecting active engagement with ethnic language in daily interactions. This dimension's positive correlation with self-esteem (r=0.51) aligns with Schiro et al. (2021), Fatimah and Mugiar (2023), and Khan and Khanlou (2021), demonstrating that active language use strengthens identity boundaries and belonging. According to Giles and Johnson's (1987) ethnolinguistic identity theory, when individuals consistently use and transmit their ethnic language, linguistic identity transcends symbolic status to become lived experience, enhancing identity coherence and self-esteem. Bourdieu's (1986) cultural capital theory further supports this finding, viewing language as symbolic capital produced and reproduced in social contexts, serving as a source of power, meaning, and identity prestige. Active language use represents a behavioral commitment to identity that reinforces self-concept and psychological well-being.
Ethnolinguistic Maintenance and Transmission represents the future-oriented dimension, reflecting commitment to language continuity across generations. The significant correlation with self-esteem (r=0.48) is consistent with Berry's (1997) acculturation framework, where ethnic language maintenance alongside engagement with dominant culture promotes identity balance and psychological adjustment. From self-determination theory, language use and transmission can simultaneously satisfy autonomy, competence, and belonging needs (Ryan, 2023). Research by Trifonova (2021) and Park et al. (2024) confirms that maintenance and transmission of ethnic language is associated with greater resilience, reduced psychological vulnerability, and higher self-esteem. This dimension captures the intergenerational commitment essential for cultural continuity, demonstrating that identity investment in future generations contributes to current psychological well-being.
Relationship Between Ethnolinguistic Identity and Self-Esteem
Multiple regression analysis revealed that all five dimensions of ethnolinguistic identity significantly predicted self-esteem, with the total score explaining 54% of the variance. This finding is consistent with a substantial body of research demonstrating the protective role of ethnic and linguistic identity in mental health (Oh & Fuligni, 2010; Ghosh & Mohan, 2020; Wantchekon et al., 2023; Kim & Choe, 2025). From self-determination theory, the relationship can be explained by ethnolinguistic identity satisfying fundamental psychological needs—particularly belonging, competence, and autonomy—thereby enhancing self-esteem (Ryan, 2023). When ethnic language is used freely without social denigration, it strengthens the experience of the "authentic self" and increases internal coherence.
In the university context, where students navigate multiple cultural and linguistic frameworks, positive ethnolinguistic identity provides a stable foundation for self-evaluation and psychological well-being. Known-groups validity confirmed the scale's ability to differentiate between high and low ethnic language use groups, supporting its discriminant validity. The scale's strong psychometric properties—Cronbach's alpha (0.91), composite reliability (0.95), test-retest reliability (0.76), convergent validity (AVE>0.50), and discriminant validity—confirm its utility for research and intervention in psychological and cultural studies.

Conclusion
This study successfully developed and validated the Ethnolinguistic Identity Scale (ELIS), a multidimensional instrument with robust psychometric properties for the Iranian student population. The five-factor structure—knowledge, belonging, self-esteem, language use, and maintenance/transmission—provides a comprehensive framework for understanding the complex, multi-layered nature of ethnolinguistic identity. The scale demonstrates excellent reliability (α=0.91, CR=0.95) and validity, including convergent, discriminant, concurrent, and known-groups validity.
The findings confirm that ethnolinguistic identity is not a static attribute but a dynamic process involving cognitive awareness, emotional attachment, positive valuation, active behavioral engagement, and intergenerational commitment. Furthermore, the significant positive relationship with self-esteem (r=0.74) highlights the protective function of ethnolinguistic identity in psychological well-being, particularly in multilingual contexts where individuals navigate multiple cultural and linguistic frameworks. This relationship can be understood through the satisfaction of fundamental psychological needs—belonging, competence, and autonomy—as conceptualized in self-determination theory.
The scale offers practical applications for research and intervention in cultural psychology, psycholinguistics, and identity studies. It can facilitate investigation of the role of ethnolinguistic identity in psychological outcomes, acculturation processes, and intergroup relations. In clinical and educational settings, the scale can inform culturally sensitive interventions that strengthen ethnolinguistic identity to promote psychological well-being and resilience. Future research should examine the scale's applicability across diverse ethnic groups, longitudinal validity, and its relationship with other psychological constructs. This instrument provides a valuable tool for understanding and supporting ethnolinguistic identity in Iran's diverse multilingual context and other similar multicultural societies.