Abstract
The large-scale migration of Afghans following four decades of war and insecurity has presented them with numerous challenges in their host countries. One of these challenges is acculturation stress, which can affect the mental and physical health of immigrants. The aim of the study was to examine the validity and reliability of the acculturation stress questionnaire among Afghan immigrants living in Iran. The statistical population included all Afghans over 18 years of age living in Iran, from whom 510 people were selected using convenience sampling (252 people for exploratory and confirmatory analysis of the seven-factor model and 258 people for confirmatory analysis of the four-factor model). Data were collected through an online link and a printed version at the Afghan embassy. Confirmatory factor analysis showed that the seven-factor model is not confirmed; However, exploratory factor analysis extracted a four-factor structure including “perception of discrimination”, “longing for homeland/compatriot”, “distress and insecurity”, and “feeling of alienation”, which explained a total of 57.042% of the variance. The reliability of the subscales was between 0.80 and 0.92 and the internal consistency of the entire scale was 0.95. The findings indicate that this tool can be useful in identifying cultural stresses of Afghan immigrants and designing supportive interventions.

Introduction
The large-scale migration of Afghans following four decades of war and insecurity has presented them with numerous challenges in host countries. One of these challenges is acculturation stress, which can affect the mental and physical health of immigrants. According to UNHCR (2024), approximately 778,000 Afghan passport holders with Iranian visas and 586,000 Afghan refugees were living in Iran, with an estimated 2 million undocumented Afghans residing in the country—making them the largest refugee population in Iran. Migration typically creates significant life changes that can lead to serious problems. These challenges depend on various factors, including concerns about residency status, limited job opportunities (Mirzaei, 2016), discrimination, lack of social acceptance (Schwartz, 2010), inadequate access to quality education (Mirzaei, 2017), insufficient language skills, and cultural differences (Ren & Jiang, 2021). These factors can severely impact immigrants' mental health and adaptation (Berry, 1997). Cross-cultural psychology has introduced the term "acculturation stress" to describe this specific type of anxiety. Acculturative stress can be defined as the psychological pressure resulting from conflicts that individuals experience when adapting to a new culture in the host society (Urzúa et al., 2021; Ren & Jiang, 2021).
Acculturative stress among Afghan immigrants and refugees is a significant issue that arises when confronting the traumas of displacement and the complexities of adapting to a new cultural environment. Various factors contribute to cultural stress in this population, including economic instability, occupational barriers and limitations (Alemi et al., 2016), experience of discrimination (Güler, 2022), as well as immigration laws and policies in Iran (Zandi Navgaran et al., 2023). According to Berry's (1997) model, acculturation refers to the process of learning new values and behaviors while losing previous values. This process varies depending on the type of acculturation strategy individuals adopt (Jung, 2022). Berry's acculturation strategies include integration (maintaining one's cultural identity while accepting aspects of the new culture), assimilation (abandoning one's cultural identity to fully accept the new culture), separation (rejecting the new culture while maintaining one's cultural identity), and marginalization (rejecting both one's cultural identity and the new culture). Studies have shown that each of these strategies has different effects on acculturative stress levels; the first two strategies lead to the lowest levels of acculturative stress, while separation and marginalization are associated with the highest levels (Eshun & Gurung, 2009).
The limited research on acculturative stress among Afghan immigrants highlights the need for valid assessment tools. The Acculturative Stress Scale for International Students (ASSIS), developed by Sandhu and Asrabadi (1994), is a 36-item instrument that assesses acculturative stress across seven dimensions. This scale has demonstrated high reliability (α = 0.92-0.96) in various studies (Ma, 2017; Wei et al., 2007). The present study aims to examine the psychometric properties of the acculturative stress scale for Afghan immigrants residing in Iran. While previous research has contributed to understanding acculturative stress, studies such as Rezaei et al. (2019) focused on specific age groups (adolescents), highlighting the need for more comprehensive research covering a broader age range. Given the cultural and religious similarities between Iran and Afghanistan, examining the validity and reliability of this instrument in this population is essential for identifying cultural stressors and designing appropriate supportive interventions.

Research Methodology
This applied research employed a descriptive-correlational design (factor analysis). The statistical population included all Afghans over 18 years of age residing in Iran. A total of 510 participants were selected using convenience sampling, with 252 participants for exploratory and confirmatory analysis of the seven-factor model and 258 participants for confirmatory analysis of the four-factor model. Data were collected through an online link and a printed version distributed at the Afghan embassy. The sample included 346 men and 164 women, with 124 students and 386 non-students.
Instruments included the Acculturative Stress Scale for International Students (ASSIS; Sandhu & Asrabadi, 1994), the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS; Zimet et al., 1988), and the obsessive-compulsive subscale of the Symptom Checklist-90-Revised (SCL-90-R; Derogatis, 1977). The ASSIS is a 36-item scale with a five-point Likert response format, assessing acculturative stress across seven dimensions: perceived discrimination, homesickness, perceived hatred/rejection, fear, cultural shock-related anxiety, guilt, and miscellaneous items. The MSPSS was used to assess convergent validity, while the obsessive-compulsive subscale was used to assess discriminant validity due to theoretical differences between acculturative stress and clinical disorders. The translation process involved forward and back-translation by bilingual experts, followed by content validity assessment and a pilot study with 38 Afghan immigrants. Data were analyzed using SPSS-27 and AMOS-24.

Discussion
Factor Structure: Rejection of the Seven-Factor Model and Emergence of a Four-Factor Structure
Confirmatory factor analysis of the original seven-factor model of the Acculturative Stress Scale revealed poor fit indices (CFI = 0.203, RMSEA = 0.49, PCFI = 0.189), indicating that the seven-factor structure was not confirmed in the Afghan immigrant population in Iran. This finding aligns with previous research demonstrating that instruments developed in different cultural contexts may not exhibit the same structure in other societies and require re-norming and localization (Byrne, 2008; Solberg, Gridley, & Peters, 2022; Milfont & Fischer, 2010). The experience of Afghan immigrants in Iran is shaped by specific social and institutional structures—legal restrictions, institutional discrimination, and limited access to social support—all of which intensify psychological pressures and acculturative stress (Zandi Navgaran et al., 2023; Mirzaei, 2016). These contextual factors likely altered the grouping and clustering of items, leading to the emergence of a distinct four-factor structure.
Exploratory factor analysis with principal axis factoring and Varimax rotation extracted four factors that collectively explained 57.042% of the total variance: "Perception of Discrimination" (20.074%), "Longing for Homeland/Compatriots" (16.143%), "Distress and Insecurity" (12.436%), and "Feeling of Alienation" (8.389%). The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy was 0.94, and Bartlett's test of sphericity was significant (p < 0.001), confirming the suitability of the data for factor analysis. Items with factor loadings below 0.30 or those loading on multiple factors were excluded, resulting in a refined 32-item scale with loadings ranging from 0.47 to 0.77.
Perception of Discrimination** emerged as the strongest factor, reflecting experiences of prejudicial treatment, being overlooked, and social rejection. Items such as "People in some Iranian cities are prejudiced against me," "I feel I am treated unequally," and "People in some Iranian cities show hatred toward me through their behaviors" loaded highly on this factor. This finding aligns with previous research identifying discrimination and social stigma as primary sources of acculturative stress among immigrants (Eiroa-Orosa et al., 2023; Alemi & Stempel, 2018). For Afghan immigrants in Iran, research has consistently documented experiences of discrimination that increase social vulnerability (European Union Agency for Asylum, 2023; Seddighi et al., 2024). Similar evidence from other countries, including Turkey, has shown that discrimination is negatively associated with life satisfaction among Afghan immigrants (Güler, 2022).
Longing for Homeland/Compatriots emerged as the second factor, extending beyond simple nostalgia to encompass separation grief, worry about compatriots' conditions, and loss of family and social connections. Items such as "I miss my country," "I feel sad when I see the problems of my compatriots here," and "I feel distressed because I have been separated from my relatives" loaded on this factor. This finding is consistent with previous research identifying homesickness as a persistent source of acculturative stress, including difficulties in adaptation, loneliness, mental rumination about the homeland, and longing for family and friends (Rösner et al., 2022). Living in difficult conditions with limited social support can intensify the experience of homesickness among Afghan immigrants (Samari et al., 2023).
Distress and Insecurity reflected security concerns, economic worries, and difficulties in daily adaptation. Items such as "Since coming to this country, I have experienced so many pressures that have caused me severe distress," "I worry about my security because of my different cultural background," and "I feel insecure here" loaded on this factor. This finding aligns with studies identifying unstable living conditions, limited access to services, and economic insecurity as primary sources of immigrant distress (Alemi et al., 2016; Miller & Rasmussen, 2017). Research in Iran has similarly identified livelihood challenges, residency issues, and daily struggles as threats to mental health among Afghan immigrants (Zandi Navgaran et al., 2023; Farhadi Babadi et al., 2023).
Feeling of Alienation reflected weak sense of belonging, isolation, and efforts to conceal identity. Items such as "I do not feel a sense of belonging to this society," "I feel guilty because I have been separated from my family and friends in my country," and "Because of my different lifestyle in this country, I feel guilty" loaded on this factor. This finding is consistent with research on Afghan immigrants showing that lack of social belonging and limited social interactions are common experiences (Zandi Navgaran et al., 2023; Sangari, Fekri Azad, & Ma'arefvand, 2014). International research has also confirmed that immersion in high-risk environments and exposure to institutional inequalities and social limitations produce similar experiences of alienation among immigrant populations (Armand, 2020).
Validity and Reliability Evidence
Confirmatory factor analysis of the four-factor model demonstrated acceptable fit indices (CFI = 0.901, RMSEA = 0.064, PCMIN/DF = 2.052, PCFI = 0.81), confirming the model's adequacy. Convergent validity was assessed through correlations with perceived social support, yielding significant negative correlations (ranging from -0.58 to -0.59) between acculturative stress subscales and perceived social support, indicating that higher perceived discrimination, homesickness, distress, and alienation are associated with lower social support. Although the Average Variance Extracted (AVE) values were below the 0.50 threshold (ranging from 0.34 to 0.41), the composite reliability values (ranging from 0.72 to 0.87) exceeded 0.60, supporting acceptable convergent validity (Fornell & Larcker, 1981; Malhotra, 2010). Discriminant validity was confirmed through weak, non-significant correlations with the obsessive-compulsive subscale (ranging from 0.05 to 0.21) and Heterotrait-Monotrait (HTMT) ratios below 0.90 (ranging from 0.59 to 0.89), indicating that acculturative stress is conceptually distinct from clinical disorders.
Internal consistency was excellent, with Cronbach's alpha coefficients of 0.92 for perceived discrimination, 0.90 for longing for homeland/compatriots, 0.80 for distress and insecurity, 0.82 for alienation, and 0.95 for the total scale. Composite reliability values ranged from 0.72 to 0.87, exceeding the 0.70 threshold (Triwidyati & Tentama, 2020), confirming strong internal consistency and reliability.

Conclusion
This study examined the psychometric properties of the Acculturative Stress Scale among Afghan immigrants residing in Iran. The original seven-factor structure was not confirmed; instead, exploratory factor analysis extracted a four-factor structure comprising perceived discrimination, longing for homeland/compatriots, distress and insecurity, and feeling of alienation, collectively explaining 57.042% of the variance. These findings highlight the importance of cultural adaptation of psychological instruments, as the structure of acculturative stress may vary across populations based on specific socio-cultural contexts.
The scale demonstrated excellent psychometric properties, including strong internal consistency (α = 0.95 for the total scale), acceptable convergent and discriminant validity, and good model fit for the four-factor structure. The instrument can serve as a valuable tool for identifying cultural stressors among Afghan immigrants and designing targeted supportive interventions. The four identified dimensions—discrimination, homesickness, distress/insecurity, and alienation—reflect the multifaceted nature of acculturative stress experienced by this population and can guide clinical assessment and policy development.
Limitations of the study include the focus on Dari-speaking immigrants, which limits generalizability to Pashto-speaking groups; data collection at the Afghan embassy, which may have affected response quality; and reliance solely on internal consistency for reliability assessment. Future research should examine the scale's stability through test-retest methods, validate the factor structure in independent samples, and explore its applicability across different immigrant groups. Despite these limitations, the findings provide a culturally sensitive tool for understanding and addressing acculturative stress among Afghan immigrants in Iran, contributing to the development of effective mental health interventions and supportive policies.