Document Type : Theoretical/Review
Author
Assistant Professor, Department of Language Studies The Institute for Research and Development in the Humanities (SAMT), Tehran, Iran
Abstract
Abstract
The positive turn in Second Language Acquisition has revitalized the exploration of learner well-being; however, foundational models remain predominantly Western-centric, often prioritizing high-arousal exultation over restorative states. This scoping review systematically maps the landscape of positive affect research among Iranian EFL learners through the lens of Affect Valuation Theory, synthesizing 122 empirical studies (2016–2026). The findings reveal an Iranian Affective Pyramid with a broad High Arousal Positive (HAP) foundation, dominated by Foreign Language Enjoyment, and a narrow, emerging tip of Low Arousal Positive (LAP) states. This distribution indicates a methodological HAP-bias, wherein standard psychometric instruments prioritize excitement while often omitting restorative dimensions. The review identifies critical empirical gaps, including a total demographic silence regarding learners under the age of 12, a systemic reliance on static cross-sectional modeling, and a specialist bias toward university English majors. While recent research (2024–2026) suggests that LAP-oriented states like Foreign Language Peace of Mind function as culturally congruent shields against systemic educational stress, the literature remains theoretically fragmented. This review identifies the missing ends of the arousal spectrum, peak HAP and prosocial LAP states, as the next research frontier, advocating for a decolonized positive psychology in Iran that recognizes Aramesh (inner peace) as a functional survival strategy and calls for a developmentally and methodologically dynamic research agenda.
Introduction
Over the past decade, Second Language Acquisition (SLA) has undergone what scholars describe as a positive or affective turn, shifting attention away from the field's longstanding preoccupation with negative experiences and difficulties toward the psychological and affective factors that support learners' engagement, well-being, and development. This shift has generated a substantial body of research examining constructs such as foreign language enjoyment, hope, resilience, grit, mindfulness, and well-being. However, this growing emphasis on positive phenomena raises an important conceptual question: whether positive experiences can be adequately understood by treating them as a single, homogeneous category. Positive states may differ not only in valence but also in their level of arousal or activation. Enjoyment, excitement, and enthusiasm involve relatively high levels of activation, whereas calmness, contentment, serenity, and peace of mind may be positively valued yet comparatively low in arousal. Such distinctions are potentially consequential for understanding how learners experience and value positive states, because the presence of a positive emotion does not necessarily indicate that learners seek or benefit from the same level of affective activation.
Affect Valuation Theory (AVT) provides a useful framework for examining these distinctions by differentiating between how people actually feel (actual affect) and how they ideally want to feel (ideal affect). Crucially, AVT conceptualizes affect not only in terms of positive or negative valence but also in terms of arousal, distinguishing between high-arousal positive (HAP) states, such as excitement and enthusiasm, and low-arousal positive (LAP) states, such as calmness and contentment. The theory proposes that individuals' ideal affect may not always correspond to their actual affective experiences and may be shaped by culturally and socially shared norms and values.
The Iranian EFL context provides a particularly relevant setting in which to examine positive psychological and affective experiences through an arousal-sensitive framework. English learning in Iran takes place within an educational and sociocultural environment shaped by examination pressures, competitive academic settings, teacher-centered instructional traditions, and substantial demands for achievement and persistence. At the same time, learners' experiences are embedded in broader cultural and social norms that may influence how positive psychological states are understood, expressed, and valued. Previous Iranian EFL research has investigated positive constructs such as enjoyment, grit, resilience, hope, well-being, and mindfulness, indicating growing scholarly interest in learners' positive experiences and psychological resources. Nevertheless, this expanding body of research has largely developed through the examination of individual constructs, with limited attention to whether the positive states and resources investigated across studies differ systematically in their arousal characteristics or can be meaningfully interpreted within a common theoretical framework. This fragmentation makes it difficult to determine how the positive phenomena investigated across studies relate to one another and whether they represent distinct affective profiles when considered in terms of arousal. The present scoping review seeks to address this theoretical and empirical fragmentation by mapping the landscape of positive psychology and affect research among Iranian EFL learners through the lens of AVT, synthesizing empirical evidence from the past decade (2016–2026) in order to uncover prevailing arousal biases within the research community and identify the white spaces that hinder a developmentally and culturally inclusive understanding of learner well-being.
Research Methodology
This scoping review was conducted according to the methodological framework proposed by Arksey and O'Malley (2005) and further refined by Levac et al. (2010), adhering to the PRISMA-ScR guidelines. The scoping review format was selected to systematically map the burgeoning body of research on positive affect and psychological constructs within the Iranian EFL context and to identify theoretical and empirical gaps. Eligibility criteria were established using the Population, Concept, and Context (PCC) framework. The target population comprised Iranian EFL learners across all educational tiers, including state schools, private language institutes, and universities; studies focusing on teachers or Iranian populations in English-speaking contexts were excluded. Eligible studies were required to investigate positive affective states or affect-laden positive psychology constructs and to permit an interpretation of arousal orientation through the lens of AVT. The investigation was strictly limited to ELT within the geographical borders of Iran, and eligibility was restricted to empirical journal articles published in English between 2016 and 2026.
A systematic search was executed in the Scopus database, selected as the primary information source due to its extensive coverage of peer-reviewed journals in the social sciences and humanities. A complex search string was utilized, combining three conceptual clusters targeting titles, abstracts, and keywords related to affect valuation, positive psychological constructs, and EFL/SLA contexts. The search was refined using inclusion filters for affiliation (Iran), language (English), and publication years (2016–2026). The selection process followed a four-stage workflow. The initial search yielded 460 records; during primary screening of titles and abstracts, 288 records were discarded for focusing on teacher-related psychology or falling outside the scope of Applied Linguistics. The remaining 172 reports were retrieved for full-text evaluation. To ensure precision and trustworthiness, a double-screening process was implemented, with the full-text review and classification of arousal orientations performed by the researcher and cross-verified by an independent colleague specializing in Applied Linguistics. Constructs were mapped against an Operational Classification Matrix anchored in the lexical descriptors provided by the most recent AVT meta-analysis (Tsai et al., 2025), and any discrepancies regarding inclusion or the HAP/LAP/Integrative classification were resolved through collaborative discussion until full consensus was reached. This rigorous review resulted in the exclusion of fifty further reports for reasons including non-Iranian populations, focus on non-positive-psychology constructs or non-English target languages, and technical or medical irrelevance. Ultimately, 122 studies met all criteria and were retained for synthesis. Data were synthesized using a thematic framework approach designed to address the four research questions systematically, with findings iteratively coded and mapped onto the Iranian Affective Pyramid, a hierarchical model developed for this review.
Discussion
The Affective Landscape: Distribution of HAP and LAP Constructs
In response to the first research question, the 122 included studies were mapped based on the specific affective and psychological constructs investigated and their AVT-informed arousal orientations. The resulting distribution can be conceptualized as the Iranian Affective Pyramid, a model representing the frequency with which specific constructs have been empirically measured in the Iranian EFL literature. This model reveals a tiered structure consisting of a broad foundation of high-arousal activating states, a middle tier of integrative traits, and a narrow subset of low-arousal states.
The Iranian EFL research landscape is significantly skewed toward high-energy, activating constructs. Foreign Language Enjoyment (FLE) is the most frequent variable in the corpus, appearing in sixty-two of the included studies-approximately fifty percent of the total dataset. Other high-frequency HAP constructs include hope and optimism (n = 14), pride (n = 13), and academic enthusiasm (n = 11). The literature consistently justifies this HAP focus through the lens of Control-Value Theory, with authors arguing that for Iranian learners, high-arousal states act as primary activating mechanisms providing the necessary energy and drive to overcome the cognitive and social challenges of a foreign language environment. These emotions serve as a vital psychological buffer against the monotony and passivity often associated with traditional pedagogical structures.
A substantial second tier of the literature focuses on integrative mixed constructs, led by L2 grit (n = 28) and academic resilience and buoyancy (n = 25). Unlike the momentary exultation associated with HAP states, these constructs are conceptualized as steady-state psychological resources and character strengths representing a sustained commitment to language acquisition. Researchers in the Iranian context frequently describe grit and resilience as unwavering commitment and sustained passion—enduring traits required to navigate the long-distance marathon of language learning. These constructs act as critical emotional shock-absorbers and protective buffers, allowing learners to maintain internal focus and emotional stability within Iran's highly competitive and exam-oriented educational climate. This middle tier effectively bridges the gap between pure emotional experience and stable personality features, demonstrating a strong valuation of long-term persistence and psychological equanimity over transient exultation.
LAP-oriented states-those characterized by calmness, inner peace, and tranquility-represent the smallest portion of the current research landscape. Mindfulness (n = 12) and Foreign Language Peace of Mind (FLPoM; n = 12) are the primary constructs in this category, followed by learner satisfaction (n = 5) and savoring (n = 3). While these states appear less frequently, they constitute an emerging thematic cluster in studies published between 2024 and 2026. Authors in this subset argue that LAP states are more culturally congruent with Eastern and Persian values of internal harmony and inner peace compared to the high-arousal excitement prioritized in Western pedagogical models. The emerging data suggests that while HAP is valued for its activating power, LAP is increasingly recognized for its restorative function, providing an essential psychological buffer and shield for learners within Iran's high-anxiety, exam-oriented educational system. Specifically, low-arousal states like FLPoM have been found to fully mediate the relationship between informal learning and the mitigation of student burnout, offering a level of emotional stability that high-arousal enjoyment cannot sustain.
Methodological Review: Psychometric Operationalization and Arousal Bias
In response to the second research question, the review evaluated the psychometric architectures of the 122 included studies, identifying a concentrated reliance on specific quantitative instruments that prioritize the measurement of high-arousal activating states while low-arousal restorative states are frequently omitted from empirical models.
The methodological base is characterized by a high frequency of a few standardized instruments. The Foreign Language Enjoyment Scale (FLES) is the most prevalent tool, utilized as the primary instrument in twenty-nine of the included studies. The FLES, and the broader Control-Value Theory framework under which the Achievement Emotions Questionnaire (AEQ) operates, is structurally designed to capture activating affect. Authors in the Iranian context explicitly define enjoyment as an activity-related, high-arousal emotion and a positive activating state that inspires students to actively participate in learning tasks. Consequently, the empirical data derived from these scales primarily reflect exultant socio-emotional experiences, which serve as the dominant archetype for positive affect in the Iranian corpus. The prevalence of scale items targeting indicators such as laughter, fun, and excitement results in empirical data concentrated on high-activation states. Under these methodological parameters, students experiencing positive affect through quiet reflection, internal harmony, or a sense of safety tend to obtain lower scores, despite experiencing valid positive states. This data-collection focus emphasizes high-arousal exultation, while restorative and quiescence-related dimensions, such as calmness and safety, appear less frequently in quantitative models. The review identifies that even when positive deactivating states like relief are theoretically acknowledged, they are often excluded from final statistical analyses.
A substantial portion of the research corpus assesses integrative mixed constructs, primarily through the L2 Grit Scale (n = 24) and various resilience and buoyancy scales (n = 20). Unlike scales targeting momentary affective states, these instruments measure enduring psychological traits and eudaimonic capacities. Researchers in the Iranian context conceptualize grit as a combination of perseverance of effort and consistency of interest, framing it as the psychological stamina required to navigate the long-distance marathon of language learning rather than a brief sprint. Furthermore, these tools often operationalize positive affect as a stable form of Psychological Capital, allowing for the measurement of a learner's long-term capacity to manage academic setbacks under significant socio-evaluative pressure.
The mapping of studies utilizing the AEQ (n = 9) or its variants identifies a pattern of selective sub-scale inclusion. While this instrument theoretically encompasses a broad range of affect, empirical applications in the Iranian context primarily utilize sub-scales measuring activating states-specifically enjoyment, hope, and pride-while excluding deactivating states such as relief, relaxation, and contentment. Authors frequently justify this focused approach by targeting emotions believed to correlate most directly with classroom engagement and communicative performance. Furthermore, the review identifies instances where deactivating states such as relief were removed from statistical analysis after failing to register significantly among participants. The most recent literature (2024–2026) includes the utilization of the Foreign Language Peace of Mind Scale (FLPoMS; n = 5), an instrument designed to measure dimensions including inner peace and classroom harmony. Empirical findings from studies utilizing the FLPoMS indicate that these low-arousal states can serve as significant predictors of perceived language proficiency and resilience, occasionally showing stronger predictive paths than high-arousal enjoyment. For instance, structural equation modeling has identified that low-arousal peace of mind mediates the relationship between informal digital learning and the mitigation of learner burnout. Furthermore, twenty-three of the included studies utilized qualitative or mixed-methods designs to investigate emotional dimensions not captured by standardized quantitative instruments, with techniques such as Ecological Momentary Assessment and the Idiodynamic Method allowing researchers to track second-by-second fluctuations and revealing that learners frequently cycle between high-energy surges of joy and quiet, restorative moments of satisfaction.
Cultural Valuation of Affect: Tension Between Liberation and Congruence
In response to the third research question, the qualitative and discussion-based evidence from the included studies was synthesized to identify the sociocultural and educational factors associated with affect valuation in Iran. While AVT terminology is infrequently operationalized in study titles, the literature highlights a tension between Western-influenced pedagogical ideals (HAP) and orientations rooted in Iranian cultural traditions (LAP).
The literature describes several defining features of the high-context instructional environment, specifically a traditional banking system of education characterized by teacher-centeredness and rote memorization, which authors identify as primary sources of learner boredom and disengagement. Additionally, the studies describe a collectivist social structure in which academic achievement is tied to family honor, resulting in a high risk of losing face and intense evaluative pressure centered on high-stakes examinations. Within this landscape, English is characterized not merely as a school subject but as a bridge to the universe and a tool for higher education or potential emigration. The literature characterizes HAP-oriented states-including enjoyment, excitement, and pride-as activating factors that facilitate engagement, with researchers proposing that these high-arousal states serve to counteract the perceived rigidity of the formal school environment. Specifically, high-energy states, often associated with informal digital learning, are linked to increased learner autonomy and re-engagement with the target language within lower-pressure domains. These activating emotions are found to broaden cognitive flexibility and offer a protective correlate against deactivating states such as boredom and anxiety in high-stakes instructional settings.
Conversely, a recent and significant shift in the literature, notably between 2024 and 2026, increasingly argues that LAP states like peace of mind, calmness, and harmony are restorative and culturally congruent. Scholars argue that these LAP states align with Eastern collectivist values that prioritize internal harmony and emotional stability over outward exultation. Within the Iranian educational context, LAP-oriented states are associated with mitigating the evaluative pressures of public performance, providing students with the internal security necessary for communicative engagement. When learners experience inner calm and relational security, they report lower levels of evaluation apprehension. Furthermore, in the context of high-stakes testing, reflective practices and mindfulness function as psychological buffers that facilitate emotional regulation, allowing students to reappraise setbacks and maintain performance equilibrium. The literature further suggests that Western-oriented pedagogical strategies can lead to a mismatch where high-arousal tasks are perceived as intimidating or induce cognitive dissonance among learners accustomed to formal instructional settings. Emerging evidence suggests that universal constructs like L2 grit may require localized refinement to distinguish between test-driven persistence and genuine mastery-oriented passion. Recent structural modeling indicates that LAP-oriented states, such as peace of mind, are significant predictors of language proficiency and willingness to communicate, in some models performing as primary mediators between digital learning engagement and the mitigation of student burnout.
Identification of Research Gaps: Mapping the White Spaces of Inquiry
In response to the fourth research question, the synthesis of the included literature reveals significant thematic gaps regarding the range of investigated constructs, particularly within the LAP spectrum. While FLPoM has recently emerged as a culturally congruent variable, other vital LAP states on the AVT circumplex-such as contentment, serenity, and relaxation-remain virtually unmeasured. A pattern of selective variable inclusion is evident, wherein positive deactivating states are frequently referenced in theoretical frameworks but omitted from final quantitative models. This is illustrated by instrument validation studies where only activating sub-scales of the AEQ were adapted for the Iranian context, excluding restorative states such as relief despite their theoretical relevance. Furthermore, even within the dominant HAP-oriented spectrum, the research focus remains narrow. While enjoyment is researched extensively, peak emotional states such as elation, ecstasy, or exultation do not appear as primary variables across the analyzed database. Additionally, constructs that foster deep interpersonal connection, such as compassion and awe, are represented by a limited number of empirical studies, leaving the transcendent and relational dimensions of the Iranian learner's emotional experience less explored.
Regarding population-based gaps, the literature is characterized by a reliance on convenience sampling, with a majority of research drawn from university English-language majors who may possess higher levels of baseline motivation and linguistic competence. This creates a notable blind spot regarding the public state-school sector, a concern frequently acknowledged by researchers who note that findings from elite institutions may lack generalizability to the broader student population. This gap is significant because the state-school environment, defined by more rigid structures and limited access to digital autonomy, represents a distinct emotional climate compared to tertiary or private settings. Furthermore, a developmental age-based gap is evident; this review identified no studies focusing exclusively on Iranian children under the age of twelve. Consequently, there is an absence of data concerning how younger learners experience or value positive affective states, indicating that current research on the harmonious spectrum of positive psychology is largely representative of mature, post-secondary cohorts.
Finally, the review identifies methodological limitations that constrain a dynamic understanding of affect. The literature is predominantly characterized by cross-sectional, quantitative questionnaires, an approach that multiple authors have identified as limiting the capture of temporal fluctuations in emotional experience. This reliance on cross-sectional data may obscure the lived reality of how affective states, such as inner peace or grit, unfold in real time. Furthermore, researchers frequently utilize composite scores for multidimensional constructs like Psychological Capital and L2 grit; this aggregation may mask the individual predictive power of specific sub-components and potentially complicate the interpretation of results. Lastly, there is an absence of dismantling designs in positive psychology interventions, making it difficult to isolate which specific components-such as mindfulness practice versus instructional support-are the primary drivers of positive change.
Conclusion
This scoping review represents the first systematic attempt to map the landscape of positive psychology in the Iranian EFL context through the specialized lens of Affect Valuation Theory. By synthesizing 122 empirical studies, the review conceptualizes the research landscape as an Iranian Affective Pyramid. This hierarchical mapping reveals a significant concentration of research on high-arousal activating states, suggesting a researcher-level prioritization of a Westernized ideal affect that often equates language learning success with visible, high-energy participation. While a substantial middle tier of integrative constructs, such as L2 grit and resilience, provides evidence of the importance of psychological stamina, the narrow tip of the pyramid highlights that low-arousal restorative states remain a nascent frontier in the literature. Collectively, these findings indicate that the research landscape has historically favored high-arousal benchmarks, pointing toward a need for future inquiries to more broadly explore the restorative and quiet dimensions of the Iranian EFL affective experience.
The findings necessitate a pedagogical shift within the Iranian EFL context, moving from a paradigm centered on high-arousal exultation toward a more culturally congruent model of emotional sustainability. For practitioners, this involves balancing active engagement strategies with the cultivation of a calm, secure classroom milieu that lowers the affective filter by providing a supportive environment for communication-an approach that accounts for collectivist preferences where high-energy performance can be socially intimidating. Simultaneously, materials developers should diversify the affective profile of instructional tasks by integrating opportunities for mindful savoring, reflective journaling, and quiet contemplation to build the restorative resources needed for long-term language acquisition. At the macro level, policy makers might address the chronic emotional exhaustion generated by high-stakes evaluative pressures by formalizing mindfulness and peace-of-mind interventions within the state-school curriculum, thereby transforming restrictive pedagogical environments into sustainable spaces for both eudaimonic flourishing and linguistic success. Despite its comprehensive scope, this review is subject to certain limitations. Data retrieval was restricted to the Scopus database and English-language publications, so relevant domestic research published in Persian-language journals may have been omitted, potentially limiting the visibility of localized cultural nuances. Additionally, in accordance with the scoping review design, the study focused on mapping the volume and conceptual range of the evidence base rather than evaluating the methodological quality of individual studies; as such, it provides a thematic and theoretical landscape but does not offer a meta-analytic assessment of effect sizes or statistical power. To advance a more representative understanding of the Iranian affective experience, future research should address the critical gaps identified in this review. Demographically, there is an urgent need for studies involving Iranian children and primary school learners to chart the developmental trajectory of affect valuation before the onset of high-stakes evaluative pressures. Methodologically, the field should move beyond static, cross-sectional modeling toward real-time dynamic tracking, such as Ecological Momentary Assessment and the Experience Sampling Method, to capture the temporal fluctuations of positive affect. Additionally, future interventional research should employ dismantling designs to isolate which specific components, such as mindfulness practice versus pedagogical support, are the primary drivers of psychological change. Finally, the thematic frontier remains open for investigations into the under-explored ends of the arousal spectrum, specifically peak HAP states like ecstasy and elation, and prosocial LAP states including compassion and gratitude. Addressing these areas will contribute to a more holistic and culturally congruent map of the Iranian learner's positive psychological landscape.
Keywords
Subjects
