Abstract
The purpose of the present study was to provide a model for marital satisfaction based on adult attachment styles, attachment styles to God, and trust in God in married men and women in Tehran. The research method was of a fundamental type, which according to the data collection method, was placed in the group of descriptive-correlational research and was carried out using the structural equation modeling method. The research population included all married men and women of Tehran city in the north, south, east, west, and center regions, from which 773 people were selected using the multi-stage cluster sampling method. The results of data analysis using partial least squares showed that adult attachment styles and trust in God lead directly and indirectly to marital satisfaction. Also, the trust in God variable has a partial mediating role in the relationship between styles of attachment to God and marital satisfaction, and this mediating role was more significant in women than in men. In addition to these, other direct and indirect paths (mediator, moderator, moderated mediator) leading to the variables of marital satisfaction, trust in God, attachment styles of adults, and attachment styles to God, were analyzed by considering important variables such as gender, age, education and duration of marriage. Reliability and convergent and divergent validity of the variables were investigated using composite reliability, average variance extracted, and heterotrait-monotrait ratio (HTMT). The model had adequate reliability and construct validity. Also, the data had acceptable fit indices and the variables were sufficiently independent.

Introduction
Marriage is one of the most exciting and stressful events in human life. Individuals undergo significant transformations during the marital process, and the family, as a social and emotional institution, can serve as the foundation for either flourishing or collapse (Derakhsh, Aslani, & Karai, 2019). According to statistics, in Tehran in 2023, there were 63,973 marriages and 34,097 divorces, indicating that the divorce-to-marriage ratio in Tehran exceeds 53% (Civil Registration Organization, 2024). Marital conflicts and divorce are among the serious social harms in Iran, with researchers ranking divorce among the most stressful life events (Dargahi, Rasmi, & Biranvand, 2017).
Marital satisfaction is one of the most valid constructs for assessing the multi-dimensional quality of couples' relationships, playing a fundamental role in evaluating the quality of marital relationships. The stability of the family structure depends on the quality of the couple's relationship. Dysfunctional or unsuccessful marital relationships not only threaten the psychological well-being of couples but also endanger the survival of the family unit (Masoumi et al., 2017). Allen et al. (2022) define marital satisfaction as the feeling of contentment, satisfaction, and pleasure that spouses experience when considering all aspects of their marriage. Stable marriages are predicted by factors such as closeness, communication, conflict resolution, family and friends, financial management, flexibility, leisure time, activities, personality issues, sexual relationships, and religious beliefs (Sahebdal, Zahrakar, & Dalavar, 2015; Fowers & Olson, 1989).
Numerous personality and environmental variables are related to marital satisfaction, with attachment styles being one of the most robust predictors (Bedair et al., 2020; Sandberg et al., 2017). The internal working model is an internalized set of beliefs or feelings about safety and security formed over time through interaction with others, influencing similarities and differences in individual and personality characteristics in relationships (Groh et al., 2017). Research indicates that couples with secure attachment evaluate their relationships as trustworthy, happy, supportive, and accepting, while insecure individuals describe their relationships with fear of intimacy, and avoidant individuals describe their relationships with obsessive symptoms including dependency, jealousy, and excessive control (Kobak et al., 2015). Studies have also shown that securely attached spouses report higher levels of family adaptability and cohesion, while those with anxious attachment styles are characterized by low adaptability and fragile family cohesion (Jones et al., 2015).
According to Kirkpatrick and Shaver (1992), attachment to God is another type of attachment that is in many ways similar to attachment styles and can significantly affect marital satisfaction. Attachment to God is defined as the emotional relationship and tendency of the individual toward God. God is a source and basis of security, and individuals turn to Him when experiencing severe stress and psychological disturbance. Given the gap in research examining religious variables such as attachment to God and trust in God in a causal model with mediating mechanisms, this study aims to investigate the mediating role of trust in God in the relationship between adult attachment styles, attachment styles to God, and marital satisfaction in married individuals, while also examining gender differences and the role of demographic variables.

Research Methodology
This fundamental research employed a descriptive-correlational design using structural equation modeling (SEM) with partial least squares (PLS) approach. The statistical population included all married men and women in Tehran, from which 773 participants (263 men, 502 women) were selected using multi-stage cluster sampling from five geographical regions of Tehran (north, south, east, west, and center). Data collection instruments included the Adult Attachment Styles Scale (Collins & Read, 1990), the Attachment to God Scale (Rowatt & Kirkpatrick, 2002), the Trust in God Scale (Rabbani Benab, 1998b), and the ENRICH Marital Satisfaction Scale (Fowers & Olson, 1989). The study also examined demographic variables including gender, age, education level, and duration of marriage. Data were analyzed using SmartPLS 4.1.6 software, employing bootstrapping procedures to assess the significance of direct and indirect effects. Model fit was evaluated using Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) and Normed Fit Index (NFI). Reliability was assessed through Cronbach's alpha and composite reliability (CR), while convergent and discriminant validity were evaluated using Average Variance Extracted (AVE) and Heterotrait-Monotrait ratio (HTMT). The study also examined multicollinearity through Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) analysis.

Discussion
Direct Effects of Attachment Styles on Marital Satisfaction
The findings revealed that both adult attachment styles and attachment styles to God directly and significantly predict marital satisfaction. The path from adult attachment styles to marital satisfaction was significant (β = 0.210, t = 5.87, p < 0.001), as was the path from attachment styles to God to marital satisfaction (β = 0.195, t = 5.098, p < 0.001). These findings align with previous research demonstrating that secure attachment styles are associated with higher marital satisfaction (Bedair et al., 2020; Sandberg et al., 2017). Individuals with secure attachment styles tend to have positive internal working models of themselves and others, leading to trusting, supportive, and satisfying marital relationships. In contrast, individuals with anxious or avoidant attachment styles often experience difficulties in intimate relationships, including fear of intimacy, jealousy, and excessive control (Kobak et al., 2015). The significant relationship between attachment to God and marital satisfaction is consistent with studies showing that secure attachment to God provides a sense of safety and security that can be transferred to human relationships (Shahabizadeh, 2015; Amanollahi, Izadipanah, & Soudani, 2015). When individuals experience a secure relationship with God, they are more likely to approach their marital relationships with trust, intimacy, and emotional openness.
The Mediating Role of Trust in God
The findings confirmed that trust in God serves as a partial mediator in the relationship between attachment styles to God and marital satisfaction (β = 0.081, t = 3.216, p = 0.015). This indicates that attachment to God not only directly enhances marital satisfaction but also does so indirectly by fostering trust in God. This finding is consistent with Rabbani Benab and Nikarti (2015) and Rabbani Benab (1998b), who demonstrated that trust in God is associated with psychological well-being and improved relationships. Trust in God involves relinquishing control to a higher power while simultaneously making one's best efforts, which can reduce anxiety and increase hope (Rabbani Benab, 1998a; Mohammalinejad Omran, 2020). Couples who trust in God feel less lonely and always have a source of support and refuge during life's challenges, enabling them to think more clearly and find logical solutions (Rabbani Benab & Faghihi, 2009). This trust facilitates coping with marital difficulties, reducing stress and conflict while promoting patience and perseverance.
Gender Differences in the Mediating Role of Trust in God
A particularly noteworthy finding was that the mediating role of trust in God in the relationship between attachment to God and marital satisfaction was significantly stronger for women than for men (moderated mediation effect: β = -0.038, t = 2.437, p = 0.015). This suggests that women benefit more from the indirect pathway through which attachment to God enhances marital satisfaction via trust in God. This gender difference may be explained by research indicating that women in Iran generally report lower marital satisfaction than men (Jackson et al., 2014; Jahangiri, Ahmadi, & Karimi, 2021), and may therefore rely more heavily on religious coping mechanisms such as trust in God. Women in Iranian society often experience greater stress from various sources, including financial concerns, child-rearing responsibilities, and social expectations, making spiritual resources more salient for their well-being. In contrast, men's marital satisfaction may be more directly tied to factors such as problem-solving ability, sexual satisfaction, and freedom from serious communication problems.
The Direct Effect of Trust in God on Marital Satisfaction
Trust in God directly and significantly predicted marital satisfaction (β = 0.130, t = 3.295, p < 0.001). This finding is consistent with research demonstrating that spiritual and religious orientations serve as effective coping strategies for managing life's challenges (Arzenkar & Dehghanian, 2017). Trust in God involves both reliance on divine support and the belief that ultimate outcomes are in God's hands, which can reduce anxiety and increase hope (Rabbani Benab, 1998a; Bozorgi & Arfa, 2022). Couples who trust in God experience less loneliness and have a source of support during difficult times, enabling them to find logical solutions to problems (Rabbani Benab & Faghihi, 2009). This spiritual coping mechanism can buffer against marital stress and enhance relationship satisfaction.
Demographic Variables: Gender, Age, and Education
The most significant demographic predictor of marital satisfaction was gender, with women reporting substantially lower marital satisfaction (mean = 104.85) than men (mean = 119.82), with a standardized path coefficient of β = -0.708 (t = 13.237, p < 0.001). This finding aligns with Jackson et al.'s (2014) meta-analysis and Jahangiri, Ahmadi, and Karimi (2021), who found that women tend to have higher ideals regarding marital quality factors such as personality traits, leisure time, child-rearing, sexual relationships, and financial management. Men's marital satisfaction, by contrast, is more strongly predicted by conflict resolution ability, sexual relationship quality, and the absence of serious communication problems. Cultural and social factors in Iran may contribute to this disparity, warranting further qualitative research.
Age significantly and negatively predicted marital satisfaction for women (β = -0.181, t = 5.702, p < 0.001), indicating that as women age, their marital satisfaction decreases. However, attachment style partially mediated this relationship, suggesting that secure attachment can buffer against age-related declines in marital satisfaction. This finding aligns with Pourshahriari and Hashemi Golseigani (2021), who found that with increasing age, issues such as physical changes, relationships with others, spirituality, financial concerns, and conflict resolution become more important for women, and disruption in any of these areas can reduce marital satisfaction. Having a responsive, available spouse with secure attachment can protect against severe negative changes in marital satisfaction.
Education did not directly predict marital satisfaction, but it did improve attachment styles (β = 0.077, t = 2.074, p = 0.038) and attachment to God (β = 0.213, t = 5.52, p < 0.001), which in turn enhanced marital satisfaction through indirect pathways. This suggests that higher education may not directly increase marital satisfaction but can do so by fostering more secure attachment patterns and stronger spiritual connection. Education may increase awareness of the importance of being responsive and available to one's spouse, as well as providing a secure base for growth and self-actualization, leading to improved attachment and ultimately greater marital satisfaction.
Duration of Marriage
Duration of marriage did not directly predict marital satisfaction, but it did increase attachment to God (β = 0.164, t = 4.79, p < 0.001) and trust in God (β = 0.086, t = 2.537, p = 0.011), which in turn enhanced marital satisfaction indirectly. This finding is consistent with Rabbani Benab (1998b) and Rabbani Benab and Nikarti (2015), who found that longer marriage duration can increase attachment to God and trust in God. Marriage provides a context full of challenges that gradually reveal to individuals that not everything is within their control. As couples face difficulties, they may turn to religious coping strategies, including trust in God, which combines personal effort with surrendering outcomes to God. Over time, this trust, patience, and perseverance increase and contribute to improved marital satisfaction.

Conclusion
This study developed and tested a comprehensive model of marital satisfaction incorporating adult attachment styles, attachment styles to God, trust in God, and demographic variables among married individuals in Tehran. The findings demonstrated that both adult attachment styles and attachment styles to God directly predict marital satisfaction, while trust in God partially mediates the relationship between attachment to God and marital satisfaction, with this mediation being stronger for women than for men. The model explained 27.8% of the variance in marital satisfaction, indicating its adequacy in predicting and explaining marital satisfaction. The study confirmed the psychometric adequacy of the research instruments and the model's appropriate fit indices.
The findings have important implications for marital counseling and psychotherapy. Interventions aimed at enhancing marital satisfaction should consider attachment patterns and religious-spiritual resources. For couples with insecure attachment styles, therapists may focus on developing more secure attachment patterns through therapeutic relationship experiences and skill-building. For couples with strong religious orientations, incorporating spiritual resources such as trust in God and attachment to God may enhance marital satisfaction. Gender-specific pathways suggest that women may particularly benefit from interventions that strengthen spiritual coping resources. Additionally, understanding the indirect pathways through which demographic variables such as age, education, and duration of marriage influence marital satisfaction can inform the development of targeted interventions for different life stages and contexts. Future research should employ larger, more diverse samples and qualitative methods to explore the cultural and contextual factors underlying these relationships. Despite limitations including the large number of questionnaire items and the cross-sectional design, the findings contribute to understanding the complex interplay of psychological, spiritual, and demographic factors in marital satisfaction.